Simulation¶
Chama uses a set of precomputed simulations to extract the data needed for sensor placement optimization. The type of simulation depends on several factors including the application, scale of interest, and the sensor placement objective. In many cases, multiple scenarios should be generated to capture uncertainty in the system. Steady state or transient simulations can be used. For example, while transient simulations are required to minimize time to detection, steady state simulations are sufficient to maximize scenario coverage. Note that if the sensor placement objective is to maximize geographic coverage, simulations are not required.
The following examples illustrate simulations that can be used in a sensor placement optimization problem. For each simulation, the signal of interest is recorded.
To place sensors to detect a gas leak, an atmospheric dispersion model can be used to simulate gas concentrations. Multiple scenarios capture uncertainty in the leak rate, leak location, wind speed and direction. Depending on the region of interest and the complexity of the system, very detailed or simple models can be used. In this case, the signal is gas concentration.
To place sensors to detect contaminant in a water distribution system, a water distribution network model can be used to simulate hydraulics and water quality. Multiple scenarios capture uncertainty in the location, rate, start time, and duration of the injection along with uncertainty in customer demands. EPANET [Ross00], WNTR [KHMB17], or similar water network simulators, can be used to run this type of analysis. In this case, the signal is contaminant concentration.
To place sensors to detect a seismic event, a wave propagation model can be used to simulate displacement. Multiple scenarios capture uncertainty in the location and magnitude of the seismic event along with subsurface heterogeneity. Depending on the region of interest and the complexity of the system, very detailed or simple models can be used. In this case, the signal is displacement.
Chama uses Pandas DataFrames [Mcki13] to store simulation data. Pandas includes many functions to easily populate DataFrames from a wide range of file formats. For example, DataFrames can be generated from Excel, CSV, and SQL files. Simulation data can be stored in XYZ or Node format, as described below.
For each scenario, the time, location, and signal are recorded. The time can be set to a uniform value when using steady state simulations. The points used to record time and location can be sparse to help reduce data size.
XYZ format¶
In XYZ format, the X, Y, and Z location is stored for each entry. In the DataFrame, columns X, Y, and Z describe the location, T is the simulation time, and Sn is the signal for scenario n. Exact column names must be used for X, Y, Z, and T. The scenario names can be defined by the user. When using this format, Chama can interpolate sensor measurements that are not represented in the signal data. An example signal DataFrame in XYZ format is shown below using a simple 2x2x2 system with three time steps and fabricated data for three scenarios.
>>> print(signal)
X Y Z T S1 S2 S3
0 1 1 1 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
1 1 1 1 10 0.00 0.00 0.01
2 1 1 1 20 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 2 1 1 0 0.25 0.21 0.20
4 2 1 1 10 0.32 0.14 0.25
5 2 1 1 20 0.45 0.58 0.61
6 1 2 1 0 0.23 0.47 0.32
7 1 2 1 10 0.64 0.12 0.15
8 1 2 1 20 0.25 0.54 0.24
9 2 2 1 0 0.44 0.15 0.45
10 2 2 1 10 0.25 0.28 0.68
11 2 2 1 20 0.82 0.12 0.13
12 1 1 2 0 0.96 0.53 0.64
13 1 1 2 10 0.61 0.23 0.21
14 1 1 2 20 0.92 0.82 0.92
15 2 1 2 0 0.41 0.84 0.75
16 2 1 2 10 0.42 0.87 0.98
17 2 1 2 20 0.00 0.51 0.55
18 1 2 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.13
19 1 2 2 10 0.00 0.00 0.00
20 1 2 2 20 0.00 0.00 0.00
21 2 2 2 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
22 2 2 2 10 0.00 0.00 0.00
23 2 2 2 20 0.00 0.00 0.00
Node format¶
In Node format, a location index is stored for each entry. The index can be a string, integer, or float. This format is useful when working with sparse systems, such as nodes in a networks. In the DataFrame, column Node is the location index, T is the simulation time, and Sn is the signal for scenario n. Exact column names must be used for Node and T. The scenario names can be defined by the user. When using this format, Chama does not interpolate sensor measurements and only stationary point sensors can be used to extract detection time. An example signal DataFrame in Node format is shown below using four nodes with three time steps and fabricated data for three scenarios.
>>> print(signal)
Node T S1 S2 S3
0 n1 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
1 n1 10 0.32 0.14 0.25
2 n1 20 0.25 0.54 0.24
3 n2 0 0.00 0.00 0.01
4 n2 10 0.45 0.58 0.61
5 n2 20 0.44 0.15 0.45
6 n3 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 n3 10 0.23 0.47 0.32
8 n3 20 0.25 0.28 0.68
9 n4 0 0.25 0.21 0.20
10 n4 10 0.64 0.12 0.15
11 n4 20 0.82 0.12 0.13
Internal simulation engines¶
Chama includes methods to run simple Gaussian plume and Gaussian puff
atmospheric dispersion models [Arya99]. Both models assume that atmospheric
dispersion follows a Gaussian distribution. Gaussian plume models are typically
used to model steady state plumes, while Gaussian puff models are used to model
non-continuous sources. The chama.simulation module has additional
information on running the Gaussian plume and Gaussian puff models. Note that
many atmospheric dispersion applications require more sophisticated models.
The following simple example runs a single Gaussian plume model for a given receptor grid, source, and atmospheric conditions.
Import the required Python packages:
>>> import numpy as np
>>> import pandas as pd
>>> import chama
Define the receptor grid:
>>> x_grid = np.linspace(-100, 100, 21)
>>> y_grid = np.linspace(-100, 100, 21)
>>> z_grid = np.linspace(0, 40, 21)
>>> grid = chama.simulation.Grid(x_grid, y_grid, z_grid)
Define the source:
>>> source = chama.simulation.Source(-20, 20, 1, 1.5)
Define the atmospheric conditions:
>>> atm = pd.DataFrame({'Wind Direction': [45, 60],
... 'Wind Speed': [1.2, 1],
... 'Stability Class': ['A', 'A']}, index=[0, 10])
Initialize the Gaussian plume model and run (the first 5 rows of the signal DataFrame are printed):
>>> gauss_plume = chama.simulation.GaussianPlume(grid, source, atm)
>>> gauss_plume.run()
>>> signal = gauss_plume.conc
>>> print(signal.head(5))
X Y Z T S
0 -100.0 -100.0 0.0 0 0.0
1 -100.0 -100.0 2.0 0 0.0
2 -100.0 -100.0 4.0 0 0.0
3 -100.0 -100.0 6.0 0 0.0
4 -100.0 -100.0 8.0 0 0.0
The Gaussian Puff model is run in a similar manner. The time between puffs (tpuff) and time at the end of the simulation (tend) must be defined.
Initialize the Gaussian puff model and run:
>>> gauss_puff = chama.simulation.GaussianPuff(grid, source, atm, tpuff=1, tend=10)
>>> gauss_puff.run(grid, 10)
>>> signal = gauss_puff.conc
External simulation engines¶
Simulations can also be generated from a wide range of external simulation engines, for example, atmospheric dispersion can be simulated using AERMOD [USEPA04] or CALPUFF [ScSY00] or using detailed CFD models, transport in pipe networks can be simulated using EPANET [Ross00] or WNTR [KHMB17], and groundwater transport can be simulated using MODFLOW [McHa88]. Output from external simulation engines can be easily formatted and imported into Chama.